MEN IN RED
By: Quennie Ann J. Palafox 

REVOLUTIONARY AFTERMATH
by Peter Jaynul Villanueva Uckung

“Other historians relate facts to inform us of facts. You relate them to incite in our hearts an intense hatred of lying, ignorance, hypocrisy, superstition, tyranny; and the anger remains even after the memory of the facts has disappeared.”
Diderot, praising Voltaire

      The brief air of freedom that the Declaration of Independence brought about on June 12, 1898 to the Philippines was censured by the American government with Emilio Aguinaldo’s oath of allegiance to the government of the United States on April 1, 1901. This became the starting date for considering unyielding Filipino fighters as bandits.

     The war for freedom did not end with the oath of allegiance to the American government by the Philippine president. The revolutionary momentum could not be stopped by mere signatures of captured prominent persons, or by the Treaty of Paris, wherein Spain ceded the Philippines to the United States for twenty million dollars. The United States actually suffered more casualties after Aguinaldo’s surrender, which was ironic, because the Americans were banking on his capture for Filipino resistance to end.

       The winds of war have planted the seeds of revolutionary ideals all over the country, and the prime mover of revolutionary zeal was the idea that total freedom through armed confrontation could be achieved after all. It was countered by the Americans with total war and ruination.

       The list is long of heroes and heroism; of battles and brutalities; of soldiers and victims.  The conflict after the American declaration of benevolent assimilation was deadlier, fiercer, and more violent than any theater of war that the American soldier went into.

       Macario Sakay continued fighting the Americans in the Sierra Madre Mountain Range. Vicente Lukban still commanded the most feared bolo men in Samar. In Bicol, Simeon Ola still waited in ambush deep in the jungles.

       In Mindanao, despite the Bates Treaty, signed by the Sulu Sultan and the Americans, resistance in Sulu flourished like a frenzied festival of death. And Muslim warriors did die, almost always to the last man. Panglima Hassan led his men in fighting the Americans, defying the Sultan’s command of desistance. Then, there was Jikiri- the swiftest and most ferocious waterborne warrior that ever prowled the waters of Sulu. In Lanao there was Ampuanagus. In Cotabato there were Datu Ali and Datu Alamada.

       Famous battles there were a-plenty. The Balangiga encounter and the Pulajanes reddened the memory of the American soldiers with blood. And so did Bud Dajo and Bud Baksak in Jolo; Taraca and Bayang in Lanao. The ravages of the war for freedom were testaments to the determination of the Filipinos to attain it.

        American arms decidedly defeated the Filipinos, and an era of relative peace was maintained.

        Freedom is not only based on the sovereignty of the government, it is ultimately based on the quality of existence of the people being governed.

       Aware of this, and all-fired up by the memory of the revolution, well-meaning men launched protests after protests on issues ranging from unfair labor practice to economic dependency to the U.S.; agrarian unrest to government corruption and ineptitude. The problem of tenancy was questioned, criticized and acted upon by the government, forced into action by a united and very angry union of farmers. There were instances of armed uprisings. Tayug of Pangasinan was one (1931), led by Pedro Colosa who organized a Katipunan-like group.

       With militant uprising condemned by the Americans, collective protests by workers became paramount. Dominador Gomez, Isabelo de los Reyes and Lope K. Santos became synonymous with the birth of labor unions in the Philippines.

      And then came the Sakdalistas; founded by Benigno Ramos. It was the bitterest opponent of the colonial establishment in all its dehumanizing aspects. It was militarily put down when its bolo-wielding members launched an armed uprising on May 2, 1935.

       With severe military censure, many protesters, peasants and idealistic men went underground. There were those who fought the military head on. Some, like Teodoro Asedillo and Nicolas Encallado were recognized by their supporters as some kind of Robin Hood. When Asedillo was killed in Laguna in 1935, his bullet-riddled body was displayed from town to town as some sort of warning.

      Wary of the grim ending of the Sakdalista revolt but still angry, and still well meaning, some supported social justice in the Philippines on their own terms, like Pedro Abad Santos, who founded his Socialist party. His ambivalence to legal procedures in attaining social justice endeared him to the most common of men.

       Freedom is more popularly equated to the sovereignty of a nation. But as history shows, especially our history, freedom is essentially about social justice, economic equality and cultural progress.

       And today we are still fighting for freedom; freedom from fear of human rights abuse; fear of hunger, fear of environmental degradation; fear of pandemic diseases, fear of economic chaos, fear of corrupt government officials, etc.

        The fight for freedom goes on.
————————————————————————————————————

193RD BIRTH ANNIVERSARY OF APOLINARIO DELA CRUZ
by Quennie Ann J. Palafox

       Spain notwithstanding her insufficient number of men made successful conquests in the archipelago not with the aid of their swords but with the cross, and this was made possible by converting the natives into the Christian faith. For many years beginning from about 1655, natives did not stop in their struggle for freedom as separate revolts to challenge the Spanish colonial power perpetuated in different parts of the archipelago. The early years of Spanish conquest was centered on the evangelization of the natives which eventually transformed the pagan natives to become Christians. The natives began embracing the Christian faith but they began to apprehend the repression that had been imposed upon them by their colonial masters and so individuals in various towns and villages attempted to break away from the yoke of imperialism. Despite their effort and bravado in their quest for freedom, they were suppressed for the rebels were not sufficiently trained in warfare and small in number against the superior arms of the Spaniards.

      These conquerors imposed a religion on the inhabitants of the Philippines that was so inflexible that any deviation was not only prohibited but considered a revolt not only against the church but the Spanish government as well as these two entities were united with the cross being the symbol of the state. This religious oppression by the Spaniards can be viewed in the experience of Apolinario de la Cruz’s Cofradia de San Jose.

       Hermano Pule and the Cofradia de San Jose

       The Cofradia de San Jose would not come into being without its founder Apolinario de la Cruz. This charismatic leader and future founder of the Cofradia was born on July 22, 1815 in Lucban, Tayabas province (now Quezon) of relatively well-to-do peasant parents Pablo de la Cruz and Juana Andres, both of which were religious Catholics. At fifteen, he decided to become a priest so he went to Manila in 1830 to pursue his ambition. He got frustrated when he was not allowed to enter priesthood just because his being an Indio. This event did not stop him from rendering religious service, he worked as lay brother instead, or, donado, at the San Juan de Dios Hospital, a charitable institution where he joined the Cofradia de San Juan de Dios, a brotherhood open to Indios and affiliated with the hospital. De la Cruz’s interest in public speaking was developed in this organization and he eventually became a lay preacher with a capacity to touch the hearts of his audience.

       The year 1832 became a turning point in the religious life of Apolinario de la Cruz when he helped organize a group of nineteen persons also from Tayabas into a confraternity, the Hermandad de la Archi-Confradía del Glorioso Señor San Jose y de la Virgen del Rosario (Brotherhood of the Great Sodality of the Glorious Lord Saint Joseph and of the Virgin of the Rosary). This organization was a mere brotherhood. Similar to other religious organizations existing in Tayabas and other parts of the province whose purpose was to live in a religious life in accordance to the teaching of Gods and perform charitable works and church activities. In 1837 Apolinario de la Cruz appointed Octavio Ignacio de San Jorge as the “Hermano Mayor” while Filipino priest, Ciriaco de los Santos was designated as the Chaplain and Treasurer of the Confraternity.

      The Cofradia was small organization unlike the other cofradias that from its founding in 1832 to 1840, it existed unnoticed. There was still no certain date but sometimes in 1839 or 1840 the Cofradia, had its member increased. The original nineteen members were now called fondadores (founders). Representatives were sent by the Cofradia to towns in the provinces of Tayabas, Laguna and Batangas.  A dozen of people recruited to the Cofradia was equivalent for one vote for each council, these representatives became known as cabecilla (headmen).

        The Cofradia conducted a meeting in the house of Francisco de los Santos in 1840 where the aims of the brotherhood was made public and by this time they have male and female members in Batangas, Laguna and Tondo. Collection of fees were imposed upon the members such as entrance free set at one real another real for their contribution during Holy Mass and other religious services held every 19th of the month. By 1841 there were more than 500 members in Lucban alone, more than 240 in Tayabas town, 120 in Pagbilao, 20 in Tiaong, more than 40 in Batangas (Lipa and San Pablo), 130 in Majayjay. It had also members in Laguna (Nagcarlan, Liliw, Magdalena). Dela Cruz accounted that total members of Cofradia based on padrones (registry) was from 4, 500 to 5, 000 members.

The Confrontation between the Cofradias and the Church

      Monthly assembly to hear mass became a customary among the members of the Confraternity who were convinced that their brotherhood was performing mere religious practices, thus, needing no permission from the government officials. When they realized that there number was increasing, they then considered it appropriate to authorizations from the church and the government.

      Dela Cruz sought for the bishop of Camarines’ recognition and authorization of the Cofradia as a religious organization to make legal its holding of meetings and religious practices but the bishop denied his request. Not discourage by the disapproval of the bishop’s to recognize the brotherhood, dela Cruz applied for authorization to the Audiencia in Manila, the papers of the Cofradia was prepared by Don Domingo Rojas but the petition was denied.

       Consequently, the Franciscan friars in the province denounced the religious practices of the Cofradias and pronounced it unorthodoxy and had to be stopped. They called the attention of the gobernadorcillo to make proper actions. On October 19, 1840, the gobernadorcillo of Lucban dispatched men to arrest the members of the brotherhood and so, some 243 persons of the 500 to 600 in the house of Francisco de los Santos were imprisoned. The provincial governor, Don Joaquin Ortega who was a husband to one of the members of the Cofradia, immediately ordered the release of prisoners when the news of massive arrest reached to him. This order from the governor was opposed by the vicar, Fr. Antonio Mateo and the parish priest Fr. Manuel Sancho of Lucban, both wanted the imprisonment of the arrested members.

       Dela Cruz immediately sent a report to Archbishop Segui in Manila disparaging the unchristian acts of the friars in Tayabas. He made public his agitation and accused the friars of beatings on one of two members and threatening the members with excommunication. Dela Cruz challenged the authority of the vicar and of the parish church to do such acts because of the aims of the society was never against the Catholic faith. On January 29, 1841, a letter of dela Cruz was sent to the Bishop of Nueva Caceres restating that the cofradia was not against canon law. This petition letter was forwarded to the juez provisor of the bishopric, who, in turn endorsed it to the vicar, Fr. Antonio Mateo of Tayabas and to Fr. Manuel Sancho, the parish priest of Lucban. In effect, the petition was disregarded; the two friars declared that dela Cruz was not fit to wear the robe of the confradia.  Upon learning of the organization and thinking that it was a seditious group, the Governor General, Don Marcelino de Oraa y Lecumberri ordered the arrest of its members and the brotherhood’s disbandment. As a result, dela Cruz gathered his men in Bay, Laguna and then went to San Pablo, then to Tiaong and to Sariaya. He then moved to Isabang, a sitio between Sariaya and Tayabas, where he was joined by other members from Batangas and Laguna and other towns of Tayabas.

The Bloody Encounter with the Spaniards

       Meanwhile the government in its effort to subdue the brotherhood  and regarded it as a subversive group sent a military force of 300 men  under Alcalde Mayor Joaquin was formed on October 11, 1841 to seize the camp of dela Cruz.  The Cofradia was offered amnesty through a communication but they rejected it. And so, the government forces started attacking the camp but in the end, the government forces were forced to retreat. The Negritoes helped the Cofradias in defending the camp which resulted to a tragic end. Ortega and many of his men were killed in this assault abandoning their falconets, arms, and ammunition much to the delight of the Cofradias.  De la Cruz transferred his camp to Alitao, adjacent to Tayabas capital, which he forthwith fortified. The thought of severing his ties with the Church entered his mind as he assumed the highest position in the Cofradia and his followers crowned him “King of the Tagalogs”.

       This tragic end of the government forces in the hands of the Cofradias reached Governor General Oraa who ordered Col. Joaquin Huet to suppress the group but he initially offered government amnesty with the exception of dela Cruz and his aides. However, no one accepted his offer and so, the attack commenced. On November 1, 1841, the government forces started their assault on De la Cruz’s camp and the fight lasted for four hours. The government forces triumphed in this battle as thousand rebels were killed in the encounter. According to Spanish sources, the Cofradias were in a high state excitement, spoiling for a fight, waving a red flag, fighting.

       Dela Cruz fled to Sariaya to escape but was unluckily caught by the forces of Col. Huet.  He was found out guilty after a summary trial and death by musketry was the punishment ordered by the court. The body of dela Cruz was quartered and his head stored in a cage for public view as it was put on top of a pole stuck along the roadside leading to Majayjay town.  The other Confraternity leaders, Dionisio de los Reyes, Francisco Espinosa de la Cruz, and Gregorio Miguel de Jesus were sentenced to death just like dela Cruz.

     The Supreme Court of Spain criticized the actions of the Government to the Cofradias resulted to the killings of many of its members by the government forces and officially reprimanded Governor-General Oraa. After studying the evidence submitted, the court declared that de la Cruz and his followers clearly had no political aims but to practice its religious faith. What the fault committed by the brotherhood was ecclesiastical in character for not seeking permission from Church authorities in their religious activities.

ISABELO DE LOS REYES

    Isabelo de los Reyes was born on July 7, 1864 in Vigan, Ilocos Sur to Elias de los Reyes and Leona Florentino, a well known poetess of the Philippines.

      At the age six, the young Beluce (his nickname then) was committed by his father to the care of a rich relative, Don Mena Crisologo.

      As a boy, he studied at the Vigan Seminary, where he began to hate the friars because of their maltreatment of the students that led them to strike. In June 1880, at 16, he went to Manila and enrolled as a self-supporting student at the San Juan de Letran College where he obtained the grades of sobresaliente in all subjects when he graduated with the Bachelor of Arts Degree. He later studied law in the University of Santo Tomas, and registered for courses in paleography, history and anthropology. He was flexing the universality of his interests.

       He became a notary at the age of 22. As the legal age to practice law was 25, he turned his attention towards journalism.

     His first article dealt with the “Invasion of Limahong”, which appeared in the Diario de Manila in November 1882. Then he founded the first vernacular paper, El Ilocano. He published the prize winning books, the Historia de Ilocos, Folklore Filipino and also Las Islas Visayas en la epoca de la Conquista: He edited books and leaflets, contributed articles to various Spanish periodicals, wrote articles criticizing the Spanish maladministration in the Philippines, and openly attacked the religious and Spanish writers.

      On June 14, 1884, he married Josefa Sevilla, a Filipina beauty of Malabon. As he had a growing family to support, he engaged in business, but never prospered. He then returned to journalism and literature.

      Because of his stirring and pungent articles against the friars, he was regarded as a dangerous enemy. Accused of complicity in the Revolution of 1896, he was arrested and jailed in the Bilibid Prison on February 13, 1897. While he was in prison, his wife died. He was permitted to attend his wife’s funeral and share the bereavement with his six children.

      Inside the Bilibid Prison, he wrote his Sensecional Memoria and addressed it to the Governor pointing out that the friars were the ones who sowed the seeds of rebellion against colonial government in the Philippines. This document provoked discussion in the islands especially in Spain so much so that it caused his deportation to Spain, where he was incarcerated at the Montjuich Castle in Barcelona. In accordance with the terms of the Pact of Biak na Bato on December 14-15, 1897, he was released. As an indication of the high regard for him, he was appointed Consejo del Ministerio de Ultramar in the Spanish Cabinet in 1898-1901.

      While working as consejero (counselor) he fell in love with Señorita Maria Angeles Lopez Montero and married her on Christmas Eve on 1898. His marriage to this Spanish girl and his having a good job in the Spanish government did not, however, diminish Don Belong’s love for his native land, so that in 1899 he published La Sensecional Memoria sobre la Revolucion Filipina in Madrid.

    While abroad, he was commissioned by the Filipino Ecclesiastical Assembly to negotiate with the Pope to secularize the Filipino clergy. The rejection of the appeal compelled him to resume his anti-friar campaign. However, upon the proclamation of the Philippine Independence Church, Filipinos were consecrated bishops; for fear that they would affiliate with the Aglipayans.

    During the Filipino-American War (1899-1902), he attacked the Americans for assaulting the first Philippine Republic in his new book Independencia y Revolucion. He founded and edited two nationalist periodicals in Madrid, El Defensor de Filipinas and Filipinas Ante Europa.

      Upon Gen. Aguinaldo’s capture in March 1901, General Malvar appointed Don Belong, as he was now popularly called, while still in Spain as Secretary of State of the Revolutionary Cabinet. He was named President of the Republic of the Philippines by some of the revolutionary generals, a title he never received because at that time the Americans already occupied the Philippines.

      He returned to Manila on July 1, 1901. On February 2, 1902, he organized the first labor union, Union Obrera Democratica Filipina. As its first President, he initiated the first Labor Day celebration on May 1 and published La Redencion de Obrero, the first labor newspaper.

      In the first labor Congress held on August 3, 1902, he proclaimed the establishment of the Philippine Independent Church and nominated Fr. Gregorio Aglipay, vicar general of the Revolutionary Army, as its Supreme Bishop. Mons. Aglipay then named Isabelo as Honorary Bishop.

      In the first labor strike of the Fabrica de Tabacos in Malabon, the supreme head of the labor union. Don Belong was charged of violating a law prohibiting an organization to force the increase of wages, and sentenced him to four months imprisonment.

      After his release from prison, he left Manila in February 1903, for China and Japan. He was able to contact the self-exiled revolutionary General Artemio Ricarte in Yokohama and apprise him on the Philippine situation.

      He returned to Manila, and later in 1905, he sailed for Spain, where he worked as a juror of the Spanish government. On April 3, 1909, he returned to Manila with his wife and children. His wife died later in a Tokyo hospital. Surviving here were eight children – Isabelo, Jr., Angeles, Elisa, Elvira, Isabel, Maria, Antonio and Luisa.

      A widower at the age of 48, he re-married, this time, to Maria Lim, a Chinese mestiza of Tondo.
He was twice elected councilor of Manila. He appeared in the City Hall and challenged his colleagues daily with discussions, motions and resolutions all of which were the focus of attention of both American and the Filipino public. He was councilor from 1912-1919.

      He was elected senator of the first senatorial district which comprised the Ilocos provinces from 1922 to 1928.

      Senate President Manuel L. Quezon more than once made him preside over the sessions of the Senate to the satisfaction and amusement of the members and the public because of his peculiar mannerisms.

      After his term as senator, he devoted his time to religion and writing. As an honorary bishop of the Aglipayan Church, he wrote many sermons and other religious tracts. He was the author of most of the Aglipayan literature such as the Biblia Filipina, the Aglipayan Calendar and the Divine Office.

      Stricken with paralysis, Don Belong became bedridden until his death on October 10, 1938.
The Isabelo de los Reyes Elementary School in Tondo, Manila was named after him.

Source:
Filipinos in History vol. II

SIEGE OF BALER

All books depicting the stories of war have always had sad endings as war was never splendid or heroic regardless of its cause when it destroys many lives, including innocent victims. The color red in the Philippine flag symbolizes the valor of the Filipinos who offered their lives for the cause of the revolution- it is the blood of the Filipino people spilling in the fight for freedom that gave its red color. In the episode of the Siege of Baler in Philippine History, the spotlight does not focus on the capitulation but the ‘renewal of the friendship’ between two enemies, the Filipino and the Spanish forces.

      When the sentiments shifted against the Spaniards, the locals led by Teodorico Luna Novicio, Norberto Valenzuela, and Antero Amatorio established a Katipunan chapter in Baler around 1897. The fiery desire to be unchained from colonial bondage was unfolded in the following events on October 3, 1897:  the attacks of the residence of the politico military governor of Principe in Baler and the town’s school and commandancia.

The conclusion of the Pact of Biak-na-Bato on December 24, 1897 reduced the Spanish garrison from 400 to only 50 men. The new contingent which arrived in February 1898 was led by Capt. Enrique de las Morenas. When the town was evacuated, Spanish Captain de las Morenas gathered his men to the Baler Church on June 27, 1898 for fear of enemy attack.  The Baler Church would be a haven for these Spanish soldiers being isolated from the outside world for the next eleven months. Novicio Luna’s troops started to attack the church by surrounding it on the following day and fires broke out in the town on June 30, 1898.

On July 19, Col. Calixto Villacorta from Nueva Ecija had taken the lead of the Filipino forces. They sent several parleys with the Spanish defenders demanding their capitulation to the extent of firing several rounds at the church.  Unfortunately, they failed to penetrate its thick walls.  Even the news of the fall of Manila did not move the Spanish defenders. The Spanish commander destroyed the newspapers to prevent demoralization of his men.  The Franciscans sent to the church Fray Juan Lopez and Fray Felix Minaya to convince the Spaniards to surrender joined them instead.

The diminishing food supply and death of some men afflicted with beriberi, scurvy, and dysentery reduced their number. The death of Captain de las Morenas on November 22, 1898 left 2nd Lieutenant Saturnino Martin Cerezo in command of the garrison. By the final days of May, Martin Cerezo upon reading the Spanish newspaper El Imparcia finally concluded that it is time to surrender.

On June 2, 1899, Cerezo laid down his terms to the capitulation to which the Filipinos agreed.  Both parties agreed that the Spanish troops should not be treated as prisoners of war. This was signed by Col. Tecson and Maj. Nemesio Bartolome for the Filipinos and by Martin Cerezo and Vigil Quiñones for the Spaniards. With the terms of surrender completed, the cazadores marched out of the church with their arms while the Filipino troops lined up the pathway. From more than 50 individuals who entered the church of Baler, 35 survived.

Aguinaldo impressed by the bravery of these Spanish defenders in Baler, issued a decree on June 30, 1899 considering the Spanish surrenderees to be considered as friends not enemies and be given safe conduct passes necessary for them to be able to return to their country.  On July 20, 1899 Martin Cerezo and his men left Manila aboard the vessel Alicante and reached Barcelona on September 1, 1899.

HISTORY OF BALER

       The name Baler originated from the term “balod,” which is the indigenous name for mountain doves or palomas montes that abound in the area.   It was founded as a mission by Franciscan missionaries headed by Fr. Blas Palomino in 1609. The early inhabitants were the Dumagat and Ilongot natives. In 1611, Fr. Francisco de San Antonio built its first church made of bamboo and nipa. In 1658, the ecclesiastical administration of Baler was turned-over to the Augustinian Recollects.  In 1703 Baler was returned to the Franciscans.

On December 27, 1935, a big tidal wave or “tromba marina” wiped out the town, then located at Barrio Sabang. An undetermined number of its inhabitants were drowned and only 14 families survived. Among the survivors were the Angaras, Bijasas, Bitongs, Lumasacs, Carrascos and Pobletes. The Muslim raiders attacked Baler, Casiguran and Palanan in 1798.

        When military district of El Principe was created in 1856, Baler became its capital. It was also made up of the settlements of San Jose de Casecnan (now the town of Maria Aurora), San Miguel de Dipaculao and Casiguran. The region was placed under the administration of a political-military governor.

       During the Philippine Revolution, a local Katipunan chapter was organized by Teodorico Luna Novicio, Norberto Valenzuela and Antero Amatorio, former gobernadorcillo of Baler. Novicio informed Gen. Aguinaldo that they were ready to fight the colonizers. Upon Aguinaldo’s approval, he gathered his men at the barrio of Dikaloyungan and resolved to commence hostilities after tearing their cedulas. A blood compact also took place in Dikaloyungan on September 3, 1897. A manifesto was issued urging the people to rise up in arms.

        The town of Baler was put under a brief period of military government when the American forces came. On June 12, 1902 a civil government was established, moving the district of El Principe away from the administrative jurisdiction of Nueva Ecija, which had controlled it since 1818, and placing it under the jurisdiction of Tayabas Province.

FIRST EXECUTIVE MINISTER OF THE IGLESIA NI CRISTO (CHURCH OF CHRIST)
by: Quennie Ann J. Palafox

       Hailed as one of the most successful and influential religions in the Philippines which is now established in 84 countries and territories worldwide and with members of different races and ethnic affiliations, the Iglesia ni Cristo’s enormous triumph is credited by some observers to the commendable leadership of Felix Y. Manalo. Despite his being lacking in formal education, his personal shortcoming that most of his detractors frequently used against him, the Iglesia ni Cristo or Church of Christ astoundingly continues to grow with thousands of people converted in the church. It started as a humble religion with only few members in 1914 but looking at the INC now with its superb houses of worship, this indigenous Christian religion has emerged as a dominant church that obtained the respect of Filipinos for its role in nation-building.

       The 10th day of the month of May is known in history as the infamous death of Gat Andres Bonifacio who was executed in Mount Nagpatong on that same day. But for the members of the INC, this day is a very special one as they commemorate the birth anniversary of their most beloved Ka Felix Manalo, first Executive Minister of the Iglesia ni Cristo. Felix Manalo was born on May 10, 1886 in Calzada, a sitio in the barrio of Tipas, Taguig, Rizal province to parents Mariano Ysagun and Bonifacia Manalo. His birth brought so much joy to his parents that he was given the name Felix and was baptized in a nearby Catholic chapel. His family was poor that his father struggled to provide the needs of his family , took two jobs as a farm worker and fisherman while his mother nursed their children.

      As devoted Catholics, the couple had young Felix indoctrinated with Catholic teachings and had him educated in the caton class of Macario Ocampo in Tipas, a school during the Spanish period. Here, he was inculcated with Catholic doctrines, prayers and practices, in addition to reading, writing and arithmetic. Consequently, Felix became a religious follower of the Catholic faith.
Felix and his younger sister Praxedes lost their father Mariano Ysagun at the time of Philippine Revolution. His mother remarried to a widower, Clemente Mozo, but this union did not last when he died. When Felix was 12, he and his cousin Modesto went to Manila. His cousin Serapio Ysagun taught him photography while his uncle, Manuel Manalo, who owned a studio, employed him as an apprentice. Other skills he learned were goldsmithing, barbering and hat making.

        His faith wavered when he found a bible in parish and began to doubt the doctrines of the Catholic Church, including its practices, after reading it. This major turning point that centered on his religious awakening happened in 1900 at the parish house in Sampaloc, Manila where they stayed with their uncle, Fr. Mariano Borja.

       The emancipation of the Philippines from colonial yoke which led to the proclamation of a republic saw the rise of the government-sponsored Iglesia Filipina Independiente or Philippine Independent Church headed by Bishop Gregorio Aglipay. But the popular and avowedly nationalistic church failed to interest the young Felix, since its doctrines were not essentially different from the Roman Catholic Church. He gave a religion called Colorum a try hoping that it will satisfy his search for the true religion but it proved him wrong. Subsequently, he became an active member of the Iglesia Metodista Episcopal and found himself serving as a pastor in Manila. His great reverence for his mother made him drop his family name “Ysagun” for “Manalo” after her death and burial.

         Not long after, he switched to another religion, the Presbyterian Church. Then he later on transferred to another Protestant group, the Christian Missionary Alliance, known as Disciples of Christ in the United States, which practices baptism of its members through immersion. Convinced of its doctrines, he became an evangelist. He met his first love in the person of Teresa Sereneo from Paco, Manila, who later became his wife and bore him one child, Gerardo who died in his infancy. Similar from the previous religions he joined in, he stopped attending the Christian Missionary Alliance and decided to join the Seventh-Day Adventists Church, where he also served as an evangelist, he was 25 at that time. He became one of its most outstanding evangelists.

        When his wife died, Felix fell in love again to Honorata de Guzman who eventually became his wife when they got married on May 10, 1913. His search for the true church of God plummeted him into a spiritual crisis as he began to doubt the doctrine of the Sabadistas (Seventh-Day Adventist Church). He finally left the church in 1913. Disenchanted with the formal religions he had so far entered, Felix associated with those who upheld atheism and agnosticism. But the way some of them intentionally misquoted the scriptures repelled him.

      One day in November, 1913, Felix Manalo gathered all the religious literature he had accumulated and arranged them, with a pile of unused notebooks, sharpened pencils and the Bible, on a table inside a small, dimly-lit room in his friend Eusebio Sunga’s house in Pasay. He instructed everyone in the household not to disturb him and he became unmindful of time, food and the world outside. He emerged from that seclusion after three days and three nights of intensive study and reflection, his notebook filled with notes, certain that God had commissioned him to carry out a mission. After his long quest for the truth, he found the right one. With each religion he had joined his heart believed to be the true religion, he always raised doubts about its doctrines. Thus, his lingering effort to find the light, took him a little while until he found answers to his questions which resulted to his decision to preach what he was convinced was the true church – the Iglesia ni Cristo.

          In July 1914, Felix Manalo and wife, Honorata, left Pasay and journeyed across the Pasig River by boat on their way to Punta Sta. Ana where their friends willingly extended their help to the couple. Felix and his wife stayed in the workers’ quarters of the construction firm, Atlantic Gulf and Pacific Company. With the consent of his friends, he organized his first religious meeting in their room with only a few people listening. His impressive knowledge of the Bible, as well as the solid biblical foundation of the message he preached, amazed the listeners and resulted in the baptism of a handful of members, the core group of what would be the first lokal or local congregation of the Iglesia in the Philippines. After a few months, he left the small congregation under the care of the first ordained minister of his church. He went back to his birthplace, Tipas, Taguig where he decided to evangelize. In Tipas, he was ridiculed and persecuted and even stoned during his meetings by his towns mates. Despite the harassment he experienced, he did not stop from pursuing his mission. His sacrifices paid off when he was able to baptize a few converts, including some of his persecutors. The members used the tem “kapatid” in addressing a fellow church member and it became a practice among the INC members up to now.

          To avoid problems in the future, the Iglesia ni Cristo was officially registered as a corporation sole with Felix Manalo as executive minister on July 27, 1914. In 1919, Felix Manalo went to America and attended classes in a non-sectarian institution, the Pacific School of Religion in California to enrich further his knowledge of the Bible.

           Although the church’s expansion met many criticisms, Ka Felix’s mastery of the Bible was commended by the Genius Divinical College of Manila on Avenida, Rizal, a non-sectarian institution headed by Eugenio Guerero, which on March 28, 1931 conferred on Felix Manalo the degree, Master of Biblo-Science honoris causa.

        The country was plunged in chaos in the Second World War when the Japanese occupied the Philippines. Church ministers and members suffered horribly from the abuses of the Japanese and even Ka Felix himself was threatened with death by the Japanese to stop him from conducting church service. He actively helped the guerilla movement who fought the Japanese by serving as information officer and providing them money, food and clothing. Although frequently harassed by the Japanese, Ka Felix continued his church mission.

         When the war was finally over, Ka Felix began to build splendid concrete chapels, the first of these in Washington, Sampaloc, Manila completed in 1948. These chapels were constructed from its own funds without any aid from any outside source, foreign or domestic, according to Church officials.

         Like other human beings, Ka Felix felt his health weakening rapidly. His ulcer brought him relentless pain that not even medicines could remedy. On April 12, 1963 at 2:35 in the morning, he passed away at the age of 77. He passed on the leadership of the church to his son, Eraño Manalo who is now the Executive Minister of the church.

REMEMBERING THE UNREMEMBERED FILIPINO PATRIOTS IN PHILIPPINE REVOLUTION
by: Quennie Ann  Palafox

       The Philippine Revolution that sparked in 1896 had witnessed the rise of great Filipino patriots all over the country who took significant roles and made noteworthy contributions in the revolution that became forerunner to the Philippine’s quest for freedom from foreign tutelage. These men responded to the call of nationalism and contributed their talents and skills to their struggle for independence against the Spaniards, who had robbed the country’s sovereignty or the right to self-rule from its original inhabitants for more than 300 years. Filipinos belonging to all social classes paved their way to the country’s largest revolution that would eventually leave a mark in the heart of Filipino people up to the present day.

       So much effort has been exhausted to the glorification of celebrated heroes and romanticizing prominent national leaders chronicling a plethora of their lives and works, neglecting unconsciously in one way or the other the unrecognized heroes who to the same extent did heroic acts for the love of their motherland. Historians tend to propagate the myth that history is the story of the great heroes and their splendid deeds setting aside heroes underneath the surface, their contributions unknown to the majority Filipinos yet deserve to be acknowledged. Thus, there is a need for an ardent historian to embark on a task of reassessing the writing of Filipino heroes in the past and correcting its being popularity-oriented to give justice to heroes that are forgotten but deserved remembrance. The definition of hero is not exclusive to great men but also extend to those who attempt to improve the lives of their fellowmen and attain a society associated with goodness.

Filipino nationalism did not thrive alone in the arms struggle or whatever sort organized to topple the Spanish government and the abusive friars. It also found its expression in the religious life of the Filipinos in the form of rejection of the Catholic religion by going back to the native religions being practiced by the country’s inhabitants prior to the advent of Spanish colonization. The demand for the secularization of the parish churches awakened the nationalist fervor and became a fire that spread quickly arousing the Filipinos to unite in attaining their ideals and aspirations in breaking the chain of foreign control.   The launching, in 1902, of a Philippine national church called the Iglesia Filipiniana Independiente, was the culmination of this vision which was first raised in the Assembly of Paniqui which was convened in 1899 for the purpose of organizing the Filipino clergy. At the forefront in convening the assembly was a man, who was a former Catholic priest, a nationalist, a patriot, a guerilla leader, and the first Supreme Bishop of the Iglesia Filipiniana Independiente. His name was Gregorio Aglipay Cruz y Labayan.

Few have been known about Gregorio Aglipay who continued the work begun by Fr. Jose Burgos- the Filipinization of the Catholic Church. He was born in Batac, Ilocos Norte on May 5, 1860. His parents were Pedro Aglipay Cruz and Victoriana Labayan Hilario. He obtained his Bachelors of Arts degree from Colegio de San Juan  de Letran and went on to the University of Santo Tomas to study law. Religious calling was something he could not refuse which prompted to enter the Vigan Seminary in 1883. On December 21, 1889, he was ordained as priest in Manila, and for eight years served as coadjutor (assistant parish priest) in various parishes. The Revolutionary Government under the auspice of Emilio Aguinaldo chosen him to serve as military chaplain on October 20, 1898 then he was the only priest who signed in the Malolos Congress in Malolos, Bulacan in September representing the province of Ilocos Norte. Aglipay was raised to the rank of vicario general castrence (military vicar general) by General Aguinaldo in a decree issued on the 20th of October. He issued several manifestos urging the Filipino clergy to unite and take over the government of the Church in the country. In May, 1899, Archbishop Nozaleda excommunicated Aglipay for allegedly inciting rebellion against church authorities although up to that time, the latter had not expressed any schismatic intentions. Mabini gave Aglipay firm support in a manifesto in which he urged the Filipino clergy to elect an Ecclesiastical Council which would set up a provisional organization for the Filipino Church. Mabini’s objective was the establishment of national church which, although still under Holy See, would work in harmony with the Revolutionary government. Isabelo de los Reyes, a labor leader, offered him the position of supreme bishop but he refused at first, but finally accepted the offer which marked his severance from the Roman Catholic Church.

He became a guerilla leader during the Philippine-American war but with the capture of General Aguinaldo in 1901, surrendered to Col. MacCaskey in Laoag. In 1935, he ran for presidency of the Commonwealth but was defeated by Manuel L. Quezon. On March 12, 1939, Aglipay married Pilar Jamias of Sarrat, Ilocos Norte since marrying of a clergy is allowed in the Aglipayan Church. His service to the church was cut-short when he died on September 1, 1940 due to cerebral stroke. The movement for a Philippine Church demonstrates both the anti-friar nature of the Philippine Revolution and its nationalist content. The support given by millions of people to the Aglipayan church revealed its ardent desire for independence.

        He was not equally famous to known propagandist such as Marcelo H. del Pilar and Jose P. Rizal but he had joined the Philippine Revolution using his pen and wisdom as his greatest weapons. Pascual Poblete’s real name was Pascual Hicaro, Poblete was his mother’s surname. He was born on May 17, 1857 to parents Francisco Hicaro and Maria Poblete in Naic, Cavite. He studied at the Liceo de Manila where he graduated Bachelor of Arts. He had been contributing columns and essays for La Oceanie Española before he and Marcelo H. del Pilar founded the Diariong Tagalog. He was the founder and editor of the Revista Popular de Filipinas, which published articles mainly on public education and Filipino womanhood. Poblete then already serving as the editor and translator of the Revista Popular de Filipinas established Patnubay ng Catolico. He was also an associate editor of Ang Pliegong Tagalog in 1896. When the Philippine Revoluton broke out, he was imprisoned and deported to Spain and then to Africa as a subversive. He was nominated to the public policy board of the Ministro de Ultramar in Spain due to extraordinary talent in writing and then edited El Grito del Pueblo of the Nacionalista Party and Ang Kapatid ng Bayan upon returning home. He is remembered for writing the translation of the novel Noli Me Tangere by Rizal in the vernacular in 1909, and on December 30, 1913 he published Dia Filipino that contained many of Rizal’s writings. He enraged the Americans who charged him in court because of the drama which he wrote entitled El Amor Patrio but he escaped.  He died of heart attack in Manila on February 5, 1921.

         This man was known in history for his being the second husband to the young widow of Andres Bonifacio, Gregoria de Jesus, following the very untimely death of the Supremo of the Katipunan. Strange to many of the Filipinos, Nakpil was not a mere husband of the Lakambini of the Katipunan but a revolutionist, and a man endowed with great talents being a musician and composer. Julio Nakpil first saw the light on May 22, 1867 in Quiapo, Manila. At age eight, his parents enrolled him in the Quiapo public elementary school called Escuela de Instruccion Primera. His love for music made him take violin lessons from Maestro Ramon Valdes, in piano under his cousin Manuel Mata.  When the revolution broke out, he was already a Freemason and was active in Rizal’s Liga Filipina, an organization which Bonifacio was also an active member. He fled Manila on November 2, 1896 to meet with Supremo Andres Bonifacio in Balara, Marikina. The Supremo assigned him delicate missions such as transfer by night of some 30 to 40 copper boxes of gunpowder from the Spanish arsenal in Binangonan, Morong, to Tejeros, San Francisco de Malabon, Cavite between December 1896 to March 1897. Bonifacio who had developed big trust to Nakpil designated him as acting secretary then minister of National Development (fomento) in the formation of the Departmental Government. He became a loyal follower of Bonifacio even after his death and in Pasig; he met the young widow of Bonifacio, Gregoria de Jesus whom he married on December 10, 1898 in the Catholic Church of Quiapo. His wife gave birth to eight children. His patriotic musical compositions include, among others; Pasig Pantaynin (1897), Kabanatuan (composed in honor of Gen. Luna), Salve Patria (1903. He drew his inspirations for his compositions from the Philippine Revolution .He died on November 2, 1960.

          Taking part in the Philippine Revolution should not cost the individual to raise arms against the Spaniards when one can use his knowledge and talents to participate in this said battle to overpower the abusive Spaniards; this was proven by Justo Lucban, a physician, revolutionist and politician.  Justo Lucban y Rilles was born to Don Agustin Lucban and Dona Andrea Rilles,  wealthy couple, in Labo, Ambos Camarines (Camarines Norte) on May 28, 1863. He was the second of the six children in the family; he was the brother of the great General Vicente Lucban. He entered in 1873 finishing his Bachelor of Arts at the Colegio de San Juan de Letran. He eventually took up medicine at the University of Santo Tomas and thereafter, he was conferred the Licentiate of Medicine. Lucban rendered his service as medical officer in the revolution against Spain. He was one of those who signed the Pact of Biak-na-Bato. He joined the battle for freedom against the Americans in 1898 and affixed his signature in the Malolos Congress on September 15, 1898 representing his hometown Ambos, Camarines. He subsequently became the editor of the “La Independencia”, a newspaper advocating for Philippine Independence in 1906. He became active in politics when he represented the first district of Manila and the third to be appointed as mayor of Manila in 1917.  Lukban was credited for building the Rizal Avenue, Jones Bridge, and putting up schools, public baths and toilets, and his battle against prostitution. His service to the public was disrupted because of heart ailment, dying at the age of 64 on September 2, 1927.

        What should be remembered in our history are the great deeds of Filipinos regardless of its position in the society not the personalities of the heroes such as family background, wealth, and power. We Filipinos are known to give importance to something that is associated with wealth and power. Only few Filipino heroes are honored especially those who belong to the rich and powerful clans that had tragic deaths or simply their stories were just being romanticized by the authors of their biographies. Today’s generation must correct the errors that have been committed in the past by recording the events and personalities with fairness that occupy important places in our country’s history and cultural heritage.

POSTSCRIPT TO INDEPENDENCE DAY – THE BATTLE OF TARAKA
by: Ma. Cielito G. Reyno

      Six years had passed since the declaration of Philippine independence at Kawit, and two years since its declarer, the First Philippine Republic President, Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo, had been hunted down and captured by the soldiers of the new colonizer and successor to Spain– the United States. Despite the loss of Aguinaldo, other Filipinos continued the struggle – whether or not they had known about June 12, 1898, and the spirit of one nation and one people.  Throughout the country other Filipinos continued to fight for the true essence of June 12, ’98— freedom.  In the battle of Taraka in the lake Lanao area- as elsewhere where the fight was being waged at all cost- the struggle took on a more defining aspect.

        In 1902 the U. S. military was set to start its encirclement of the Lake Lanao area.  Then Captain John J. Pershing, future military governor of the Moro Province, held a conference with Maranao datus, including the datus of the Lake Lanao region, in a place near Marawi, to explain the proclamation of General Adna R. Chaffee dated Malabang, 13 April 1902 announcing Spain’s ceding of the Philippine Archipelago, including Mindanao and Sulu, to the United States.  On the surface, the datus acquiesced to the conditions of the proclamation.  As events turned out, the datus were only biding their time.  This intransigent stance prompted the launching of American military operations in that part of Lanao. 

      Clashes began to take place in Gadungan and Pualas in May 1902, and on the 3rd of the month, the first big battle occurred at Bayang.  The Muslims were led by the Sultan of Bayang who commanded a strong kuta or fort.  The American force led by Colonel Frank D. Baldwin, numbering almost 500 soldiers armed with four mountain-guns, outnumbered and out-armed the Maranaos.  The battle ended with the Americans penetrating and taking the fort, and the Maranaos losing around 350 warriors including the Sultan of Bayan and the Sultan of Pandapatan.  With the taking of Bayang, the Americans established Camp Vicars, from which they launched expeditions against the south and east lake datus.  The latter struck back at the Americans through ambuscades, raids and seizing of telegraph lines.  This induced the Americans to launch major expeditions in September 1902 against Sultan Uali of Gauan and Butig, and against the Maranaos at Maciu, September 29 to around October 3 that same year.  As in Bayang, the Maranaos at Butig, Gauan, and Maciu lost, probably causing the area’s almost one-year hiatus from warring. 

        After the last battles, the Muslims of Bacolod, Calahui (Calawi) and Taraka remained to be pacified.  This was realized initially with the American assault of the Moro fort at Bacolod, acknowledged strongest camp of the Maranaos, on 8 April 1903.  The battle’s end saw the taking of the fort and the killing of more than 100 Maranaos including at least seven principal Maranao datus.  The next day, the assault on the fort of Calawi began, launching some 20 hours’ bombardment of the kotas, and forcing the Muslims there to surrender. 

      But one village remained defiant—Taraka.  It was led by Datu Ampuanagaos (or Ampuanagus)- and his name befitted him for it meant “power”. Taraka was fortified by numerous cottas (50, according to one historian). 

      On May 6, 1903, the Americans bombarded Taraka with artillery fire, allowing ground troops to breach and take many of the forts.  Around 200 Maranaos were killed, and some 60 of their small weapons, and 36 cannons, captured.  The Americans lost only two men.  Surviving the attack, Datu Ampuanagus and 28 of his surviving men, including six datus and two panditas, surrendered—but only tactically.  Ampuanagaos and his men either escaped or were released, for they later carried out guerilla strikes against the Americans, from around 1906 to 1916, living a fugitive’s life until his death – said to be from “old age”.

WHY DID SAKAY WEAR HIS HAIR LONG?
by: Quennie Ann Palafox

      He was given a bad-boy image because of his conspicuous long hair and his being the leader of a group of long-haired rugged men labeled as bandits or ladrones by the American colonizers; he established the Tagalog Republic in the mountain in Rizal Province, he is Macario Leon-Sakay. Sakay was a calm young man who wore long hair, with dark brown complexion, 5 feet 3 inches tall, of moderate build, with keen, perceiving eyes. No one knows where he sprang from because information about his parentage remains vague up to the present. No account of his childhood and education background is on hand for all.  His life is not well-documented as compared to other heroes like Rizal and Bonifacio.  Most of all, Sakay is said to be the most controversial Philippine and most slandered patriot because of the false accusations pressed against him by the Americans and Filipino pro-Americans.

        Famous men who wore long hair include Isaac Newton, Boyle, Pascal, Einstein, Moses, Hippocrates, Santa Claus, and a large number of saints in the Catholic Church. The ancient Greeks had several heroes which wore their hair long, including Zeus, Achilles, Hector, and Poseidon. Both Greek and Trojan soldiers are said to have worn their hair long in battle. Such warriors considered it a sign of aristocracy and are said to have combed it openly in order to show off. Around the seventeenth century, Chinese men adopted a longer hairstyle called a queue, which was basically a long braid down the back American Indian men wore long hair before the arrival western influences on their culture. The 1950s introduced the Beatles, who started a widespread long hair fad which lasted into the 60s. Beat poets during this decade also wore longer hairstyles. In the 1960s long hair, especially on men, was worn as a political or countercultural symbol or protest. Roughly, long hair has many meanings as it crosses the boundary of one culture to another. Perhaps one might wonder why Macario Sakay wore his hair long when men it was not a customary or deemed fashionable for Filipino men belonging either in elite or Indio class during the Spanish times to wear as such as wearing a long hair was expected among the women. An account narrated by one of the general of Macario Sakay will clarify all the curiosities we have in mind. Here how the story goes:

       It was a fine day. All soldiers and officers were preoccupied not mindful of the surprise attack headed to their way. The sounds of gun fires greatly alarmed the soldiers of Sakay and all hurriedly ran to hide for safety. When they reached their hideouts and knowing what to do, they retaliated and there was exchange of gun fires. The soldiers successfully retreated and this incident left a lesson among the soldiers. Thereafter, Sakay and his officers and men refused to have their hairs cut. Another reason they took into consideration for doing so was to give the people an idea about the length of the years they stayed in the mountains in their struggle for freedom using their hairs as a clear illustration. To make sure that all soldiers grow their hairs, Sakay, Carreon and Montalan have had their long hair. Thus, men wearing long hair became a fad among Sakay’s soldiers.

      Despite his patriotic ideals and his commitment to emancipate the country from foreign tutelage, Sakay, Carreon, Villafuerte and company were branded the ‘bad guys” during the American occupation of the Philippines, their guerilla activities were considered ‘banditry’, and their revolutionary government in the mountains the ‘organized band’ of long-haired outlaws and fanatics. Was Sakay really a bandit? This question poses controversies and remains problematic among historians who attempt to give justice to the hero branded as ‘bandit’ and ‘criminals’ by the Americans. Adding to this malady is the lack of supporting documents on Sakay.

        During the administration of Governor-General Luke E. Wright, the Commission passed a law known as LEY DE BANDOLERISMO to give a chance or force all the rebels and bandits to surrender immediately. Sakay strongly opposed this law, and those whom he found to be spying for the American military government were given corporal punishment. Hence, the spies who were caught by the rebels were given speedy trial. Without the knowledge of Sakay, some gangs of tulisanes who engaged in banditry and other criminal acts against fellow countrymen joined the rebels for self-protection when they were pursued by the government forces.

General Macario Sakay and his men, notwithstanding the accusations of banditry by the government, were revere greatly by the people. Hero’s welcome was accorded to them upon their arrival in Manila from their mountain hideouts to surrender to the American authorities. Pleased to set a glimpse on Sakay and his men, hundreds of people followed them wherever they went in Manila. There was an air of joviality with people shouting:

“Mabuhay si Sakay. .. Mabuhay ang mga bayani”
(Long Live sakay…….Long live the heroes”

       Gregorio de Jesus, second wife of Andres Bonifacio and vice president of the women’s chapter of the Katipunan, in her memoirs conveyed her veneration for Sakay and wrote: “He was a real patriot and his memory deserves to be perpetuated among his countrymen”. According to Gen. Pio del Pilar in a letter to Mr. Jose P. Santos, dated January 23, 1930, “Macario Sakay in his best knowledge was a true patriot who spread the seeds of the Katipunan to win the independence of the Philippines.  He was one of those who went from town to town, winning the people over to the cause of the Katipunan, and thus, kept alive the spirit of resistance to the enemies”.  He added, “Sakay may be called a tulisan or bandit by the Americans. That was the reason they executed him. But before God, Country, and Truth, he was a true son of the Country whom his fellow countrymen must revere for all the times”. This statement was supported by Gen. Artemio Ricarte in his letter sent to Mr. Jose P. Santos. He said, “Sakay and de Vega were hanged because of the LEY DE BANDOLERISMO in order that these patriots who refused to surrender might be persecuted as outlaws.

        In my humble opinion, these Robin Hoods with no virtuous, as the Americans perceived Sakay and his soldiers, were nationalist Filipinos who continuously fought for Philippine independence to the Americans. The Americans executed Sakay but the Filipinos will never forget him as symbol of nationalism.

THE OTHER BATTLE OF ZAPOTE: THE FILIPINOS BLOODY DEFENSE OF THE MOTHERLAND
by Ma. Cielito G. Reyno

      A year after General Emilio Aguinaldo declared the independence of the Philippines in Kawit, Cavite on 12 June 1898, the Filipinos made one of their bravest and strongest stands to defend and preserve their hard-won freedom against a new colonial invader, at the battle for Zapote Bridge in Bacoor, Cavite on 13 June 1899.  It was the peak of the American campaign to force the Philippine nation, the first republic in Asia, to submit to United States’ hegemony over them.  Having gained control of the Pasig River, the US army now had the cover to move north-and-southward of the river in its grim determination to crush the Filipinos.   It had swept through south of Luzon, though not without fierce resistance from the Filipinos, and reached Parañaque by 10 June.  Brig. Gen. Henry W. Lawton had been ordered transferred to the south by Maj. Gen. Elwell S. Otis to take command of the southern force composed of two brigades (equivalent to 4,000 men).   He was assisted by brigadier generals Lloyd Wheaton (also transferred from the north) and Samuel Ovenshine.  On the Filipino side, Generals Artemio Ricarte and Mariano Noriel commanded a combined 3,000-man infantry force.

     The aim of the US forces was to enter Cavite province, Filipino stronghold.  Lawton and Wheaton’s forces trekked from Makati toward Muntinlupa, but a point near Sucat, Wheaton’s force was overwhelmed by the unit under Col. Lucas Camerino, forcing Wheaton to seek assistance from Ovenshine, even as the Filipinos under Col. Juan Cailles of Laguna gave them a beating near Parañaque.  Not long after, Wheaton was again turned back by Lt. Col. Antero Reyes and his battalion.  Meanwhile, while it had successfully foiled the Filipino force at Guadalupe, Lawton’s troops were almost dehydrated by the oppressive Philippine heat, forcing them to unload and reduce their clothing to cope with the march on the terrain between Sucat and Paranaque- much of it dry land with no streams and overgrown with tall cogon grass.

      According to historians, had the Filipinos taken advantage of the hapless situation of the US forces by consolidating their forces and tightening their attack, the Americans, or at least Lawton’s division, would easily have been decimated.

       As it was, the Americans managed to reconsolidate and recover their strength, with one regiment replaced by Lawton for the purpose, and by June 13, they were ready to face the 4,000-strong Caviteño force entrenched behind five-feet thick trenches on the west bank of the Zapote Bridge.  This bridge was crucial for it was the entrance to Cavite province.  Using a Spanish cannon, holdover from the Revolution against Spain, the Filipinos destroyed the bridge, to prevent it from falling into the hands of the Americans.  The Americans retaliated with shellfire from the opposite side. The battle raged on with the Filipinos turning back several waves of American troops, blocking every attempt to penetrate Cavite.  The Filipinos would not give easily, many of them said to have prepared for battle by undergoing purification rites and pledging the ultimate sacrifice in the defense of the bridge.  For them it was a veritable struggle not only between Filipinos and white men but, between good and evil.

      In the end, the tide was turned against the Filipinos when almost a hundred sailors armed with machine guns were unleashed from two battleships.  The Filipinos were forced to give up Zapote, and blood flowed from thousands of their ranks- thus fulfilling their vows to the Motherland and turning that struggle into one of the defining moments of the bravery of the Filipino nation.

THE PHILIPPINE BILL OF 1902: TURNING POINT IN PHILIPPINE LEGISLATION
By Chris Antonette Piedad-Pugay

      From 1907 to 1916, the Philippine Assembly served as the lower house of the legislature with the Philippine Commission, headed by the American Governor-General, as the upper chamber.  The inauguration of the Philippine Assembly on October 16, 1907 is a turning point in the country’s history, for its creation marked the commencement of Filipino participation in self- governance and a big leap towards self-determination.

    For more than three hundred years, the Filipinos were ruled by the Spaniards and their occupation ended when Spain was defeated by the American Navy headed by Commodore George Dewey in the Battle of Manila Bay on May 1898.  Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo, the leader of the revolutionary government in the Philippines was convinced by American Consul E. Spencer Pratt, to return to the Philippines from Hong Kong to resume the revolution and break the truce effected by the Pact of Biak-na-Bato.  When Gen. Aguinaldo returned to the Philippines, he summoned the revolutionaries and ordered the resumption of the armed struggle against the Spanish government.  Amidst the ongoing hostilities, Gen. Aguinaldo proclaimed Philippine Independence on 12 June 1898 at Kawit, Cavite.  Soon enough, the relationship between the Americans and the Filipinos turned sour after  the American government agreed to negotiate with the Spaniards that resulted to Spain’s surrender and the eventual signing of the Treaty of Paris that ceded the Philippines to the United States.

     President William McKinley’s Policy of Benevolent Assimilation, aimed to prepare the Filipinos to direct their own government by having them under their tutelage. A military government was initially established in the Philippines as soon as the Treaty of Paris was signed and when the Filipino-American War erupted in February 1899.  The three military generals who took charge of the islands from 1898 to 1901 were Gen. Wesley Merritt, Gen. Elwell Otis and Gen. Arthur MacArthur.  In 1901, by virtue of the Spooner Amendment passed by the US Congress on 3 March 1901, the military rule in the Philippines ended paving way to the establishment and inauguration of a civil government with William H. Taft as the first civil governor.  The civil government named the Philippine Commission as sole lawmaking body in the Philippine islands from 1901 to 1907, and eventually acted as the upper house from 1907 to 1916 until the time the Jones Law was passed on August 1916, that gave the Filipinos the opportunity to control both legislative houses.

     The Philippine Bill of 1902 is one of the most important decrees enacted by the American government in the Philippines.  Entitled “An Act Temporarily to Provide for the Administration of the Affairs of Civil Government in the Philippine Islands, and for Other Purposes,” this law contained two important provisions that strengthen both the civil and human rights of the Filipino people, and bestowed on them the privilege of legislation.

      Also known as Cooper Act, it provided a Bill of Rights for the Filipinos that protected their rights: to live, to acquire property, to practice their religion, to be subjected to due process, to exercise their obligations, to enjoy compensations due to them, and freedom of expression.  But the most important element contained in the bill was its clauses that called for the creation of a lower legislative branch with elected Filipino representatives as legislators.

        The bill also stated the American government’s readiness to call for a general election in the islands should insurrection cedes and complete peace is maintained as attested by the Philippine Commission.  The decree mandates the US President to order the Philippine Commission to perform a census of the islands and make a detailed report about the population and matters about the people that may deemed by the Commission as necessary, while peace is being upheld.  Two years after the publication of the result of the census, and upon the satisfaction of the Philippine Commission and the US President, a general election shall be called and the elected Filipinos, not less than fifty but not greater than one hundred in number, will comprise the Philippine Assembly—the body that will act as the lower house of the legislature in the Philippines.

     The Filipinos became very cooperative with the promises offered by the bill.  Peace was maintained, a census was conducted and after its publication, an election was held on 30 July 1907 and the assembly was convened and inaugurated on 16 October 1907 at the Manila Grand Opera House. The Nacionalista Party, espousing “immediate and complete independence” headed by Sergio Osmeña garnered the majority of the seats.  The First Philippine Assembly is best remembered for its effort in reviving the issue of independence and for passing laws that improved the type of education enjoyed by the Filipinos.