by Geneva T. Urizar
Museo ni Jose B. Lingad
History consistently reminds us of the inevitability of wars and human conflicts. This truth was starkly evident when the Axis Powers articulated their ambition to expand their dominion across the Asia Pacific region in 1941. This call to arms resonated deeply, rallying thousands of Filipinos and Americans to heed the summons for military service and join the ranks of the United States Army Forces in the Far East (USAFFE). In response to the prevailing misconception that the Axis forces had established an unassailable hold over military defenses in Asia, a determined campaign was initiated. At its core was the establishment of the Philippine Scouts, a distinct amalgamation of Filipino and American army personnel. Entrusted with the critical responsibility of serving as the initial bulwark of defense, these scouts assumed the crucial role of safeguarding the Philippines until the arrival of reinforcements from the United States.
Navigating through difficult terrain, these scouts journeyed via Fort Stotsenburg, a significant Sapang Bato settlement nestled in Angeles, Pampanga. This area occupied a vast expanse between two mountain ranges, stretching from Lingayen Gulf to Manila Bay. Fort Stotsenburg was transformed into a vital military detention center, housing the combined forces’ bombers and biplanes. The fort’s sprawling plain served as the strategic base for the Philippines’ cavalry and battalion forces, a testament to their unwavering commitment to safeguarding their homeland. The valor and unwavering dedication displayed by the Philippine Scouts shone through most prominently in their resolute defense of Corregidor and Bataan—a symbolic stronghold that vividly portrayed the unyielding spirit of the Philippines during the tumultuous period of World War II.
As the Japanese Army surged into the Philippines, they systematically eradicated military outposts across Central Luzon. In response, General Douglas MacArthur found himself compelled to rally guerrilla forces in Luzon to sustain the resistance against the Japanese occupation. Amidst the entirety of the war, the Pampanga guerrillas emerged as a formidable menace to the Japanese Army, leveraging their expertise in executing ambushes, conducting raids, and orchestrating sabotage missions. With time, the East Central Luzon Guerilla Army (ECLGA) became the beneficiary of supplies, firearms, and ammunition clandestinely delivered by Allied submarine patrols lurking along the province’s coastline. Remarkably, they managed to navigate back to their barrios safely under the cover of night, achieving all of this with remarkable precision.
The Lubao Death March
Captain Jose Manalansan, a native of Floridablanca, along with his former crew, embarked on their inaugural mission as an unofficial unit in Lubao, Pampanga, subsequent to the fall of Mariveles, Bataan in 1942. Their mission encompassed alleviating the suffering of those who had endured the harrowing Death March. Seizing the opportunity presented by the temporary absence of Japanese forces, they generously distributed their meager stores of food and civilian attire to the beleaguered American and Filipino troops. In a bold move, as the Japanese momentarily faded from view, they sheltered an additional twenty rescued individuals in nearby residences within Lubao’s vicinity. This audacious effort was a calculated risk, undertaken in the hopes of rescuing these men within a mere day’s span.
With the culmination of the Death March in Lubao, the soldiers found respite as they were promptly furnished with essential medical treatment and provisions, facilitating their journey back home. A plausible argument can be made that the guerilla forces accorded priority to the American soldiers, given their vulnerability during the march and the Japanese forces’ keenness in identifying their distinct physical characteristics. Escaped American survivors of the march became integral contributors to the burgeoning guerilla movement.
The establishment of the USAFFE Guerilla materialized as a response to the Japanese invasion, aimed at perpetuating the struggle against the occupiers. Nestled within the mountains, these guerilla units carried out strategic acts of sabotage and ambushes. In moments of fortune, their efforts extended to the rescue of as many soldiers as possible, exemplifying their unwavering commitment to safeguarding their comrades.
A few of the Americans who were rescued during the death march by Capt. Manalansan’s troops.
The Creation of Squadron 74 Guerilla Movement
The province of Bataan served as a strategic haven for numerous guerilla factions. Nearby provinces all heeded the call to establish their own guerilla units, with Pampanga emerging as one of the most remarkable and valiant guerilla movements in the history of the Philippines to date. Even prior to the outbreak of war, a socialist movement had taken root in Pampanga, enlisting a considerable number of its adherents from Floridablanca, Bataan, and Lubao. Regrettably, due to their purported collaboration with Russia in an attempt to undermine the Japanese socialist regime, members of this group became targets of a relentless pursuit by the Japanese. Tragically, many were apprehended and met with lethal consequences at the hands of their pursuers.
Following the fall of Bataan, in the immediate aftermath of induction and under the guidance of the inducting officer, Captain Louis M. Bell, Captain Jose Manalansan, a native of Barangay San Pedro in Floridablanca, took charge of assembling a list of unit members tasked with acquiring arms and ammunition from Mariveles. Captain Manalansan maintained his coordination with the 71st, 72nd, and 73rd units, consistently engaging with them until a point when the captains of these units were unfortunately lost in action during guerilla operations, which included raids and ambushes.
Upon the Japanese takeover of Mariveles, Bataan, Captain Jose Manalansan orchestrated the formation of the 74th Squadron, a unit that assumed the crucial responsibility of transporting essential supplies and sustenance for other forces and Filipino-American guerilla units to distribute. They embarked on marches along the National Highway to reach the Japanese-controlled POW detention camp. In this endeavor, the Squadron seized opportunities to rescue individuals who remained outside the purview of Japanese forces. Among the diverse supplies procured, including Garand and Springfield rifles and ammunition, the Squadron faced a surprise assault by the Japanese Kempei Tai, resulting in the loss of members who valiantly perished in the line of duty. Subsequently, in response to this tragedy, the Squadron made the strategic decision to relocate its base to Zambales. With this move, they were entrusted with the mandate to launch an assertive campaign aimed at bolstering their troop numbers.
Amidst the heightened Japanese raiding activities in the region during April 1943, Captains Venancio Rodriguez and Julian Bacani lent their support to Captain Manalansan’s cause. The relentless and devastating nature of these raids compelled the Squadron to once again shift its location, this time finding refuge in Pampanga and establishing camp at Barrio Gutad in Floridablanca. Upon repositioning, the Squadron pivoted its initial efforts towards the recruitment of new members and the cultivation of alliances to fortify the guerilla movement. Their diligence bore fruit, as by the conclusion of the month, they succeeded in enlisting a total of 360 men—a pivotal and substantial contribution that was indispensable for the continuity and vitality of the resistance effort.
A successful attempt to save a carload of .30 caliber ammunition, Lubao, Pampanga, 22 December 1941
U.S. NATIONAL ARCHIVES AND RECORDS ADMINISTRATION
By December 1943, Captain Manalansan collaborated with other districts, a notable partnership being formed with Colonel Jose B. Lingad, who had recently earned a promotion under Thorpe’s leadership. During this period, a portion of the Pampanga guerillas opted to remain as General Services Troops (GST) with the responsibility of upholding law and order within the province. Despite the expectation for them to reintegrate into society, these guerillas chose to linger behind in this role.
Jose Lingad, circa 1940
LINGAD FAMILY COLLECTION
At a certain juncture in December 1944, the guerilla unit played a vital role in recovering rice that the Japanese had confiscated, successfully restoring it to the Mabuhay Rice Mill in Floridablanca. Over the course of three years, Captain Manalansan’s unit experienced remarkable expansion, evolving into a formidable force. Their efforts encompassed the rescue of numerous dedicated guerilla fighters and the reclamation of essential sustenance for various district armies.
In Edwin P. Ramsey’s book “Lieutenant Ramsey’s War,” it is highlighted that when General MacArthur departed the country, the morale of the remaining Army personnel dwindled, mirroring the decline in their food provisions and access to water sources. However, thanks to the assistance extended by guerilla movements, the Philippine Scouts, and even some Huks rebels, they managed to navigate their way to their headquarters located on Mount Balagbag in the Sierra Madre mountains.
“Water was precious to us; we had no purification tablets and we were sure the mountains streams were contaminated from the days of fighting and death…”
“Now we had no choice; our canteens were empty and we were badly dehydrated”
Mount. Balagbag, Sierra Madre, headquarters of ECLGA. Its remoteness and dense jungle cover hid Lt. Ramsey’s camp from detection by the Japanese
The successful relocation of Lt. Ramsey to Sierra Madre and the subsequent reorganization of Pampanga’s military district units owes much to the effective demolition and sabotage operations executed by Captain Manalansan’s Squadron 74. These operations, skillfully carried out, not only repelled Japanese attacks but also compelled high-ranking commanders to reconsider their strategies and plans. It is worth emphasizing that these actions were executed in alignment with the Luzon Guerilla forces’ directives, stipulating the formation of units—whether companies or platoons—in each municipality, operating under designated officers, and staying within the municipality’s boundaries. The objectives of these demolition and sabotage units encompassed destroying enemy property, disrupting military mobility, severing communication links, impeding traffic flow, and even derailing trains. It is noteworthy that, in accordance with higher command’s instructions, the destruction of bridges over national roadways was carried out selectively, underscoring the deliberate and strategic nature of such actions.
Claude A. Thorp joining the war department of USSAFFE
National Archives Catalog
From the book Lieutenant Ramsey’s War.
Second to the left first row was Col Jose B. Lingad
Despite the unfortunate and premature deaths of individuals such as Col. Claude A. Thorp, Capt. Robert Barker II, and Louis M. Bell, along with the Squadron’s severed communication with Lt. Edwin P. Ramsey, the resolve of the Squadron to continue the fight remained unwavering. When Lt. Ramsey’s arrival in Bayambang, Pangasinan took place sometime between 1942 and 1943, Capt. Jose Manalansan took the initiative to approach his old friend, Col. Lingad. His objective was to reestablish communication channels with PMD and ECLGA, specifically in relation to operations under the newly promoted Col. Edwin Ramsey’s command.
Col. Lingad, who later ascended to the position of Chief of Staff for the Pampanga Military District (PMD) ECLGA, played a crucial role in facilitating the connection between Capt. Manalansan and Lt. Ramsey. Despite encountering opposition from higher-ranking commanders, the Squadron was initially limited to engaging in destructive operations at the Floridablanca Airfield and conducting espionage activities. However, the Squadron’s actions extended beyond these constraints. In a daring move, they targeted the Japanese Army’s camp in Lubao, executing sabotage operations on enemy artillery installations and successfully acquiring their supplies. These seized provisions were then distributed to the four military districts within Pampanga, amplifying the impact of their efforts in the resistance movement.
The Liberation in 1945
After enduring years of hardships while steadfastly opposing the Japanese imperial forces, and experiencing a sense of abandonment when General MacArthur departed for Australia, a bittersweet moment finally arrived with the arrival of much-needed reinforcement. The United States commenced sending military support to the Philippines. Captain Manalansan’s unit played a vital role in aiding the remaining USAFFE (United States Army Forces in the Far East) forces. They collaborated with other infantry divisions to conduct operations at Del Carmen, Pampanga, during the initial stages of liberation. As the liberation progressed, the guerilla groups that had been supporting military operations reached a significant juncture. They were eventually disbanded, and their weapons were surrendered to the XI Corps, under the guidance of Col. John L. Bartlett, who served as the Guerilla Affairs Officer. These actions were taken in accordance with orders from the U.S. Army headquarters, marking a transition in the dynamics of the resistance effort.
In January 1945, Captain Manalansan’s unit had a significant encounter with and extended assistance to the American soldiers of the Liberation effort. This meeting took place at Dampe, Floridablanca, and was a gesture of gratitude for their return to the Philippines. The American troops were provided with much-needed sustenance and other essential supplies from the unit’s storage. At Floridablanca, the American forces established military positions and created the first landing field. Under the leadership of Captain Floyd Madrkham, the 400th and 90th bomb groups, along with Squadron 74, were tasked with ensuring the security of the area against potential Japanese sabotage attempts. This mission of securing and clearing the location continued throughout the remainder of World War II in the Philippines, contributing to the eventual liberation of the country.
America’s Broken Promise to the Philippines
Following World War II, in 1947, veterans of the conflict began to submit petitions, seeking acknowledgment and support for their roles in defending both the United States and the Philippines during the war. Unfortunately, some of these requests led to the denial of recognition for the officers and individuals involved. While a significant number of soldiers and government employees who refused to become prisoners of war joined the Filipino guerilla forces, resisted Japanese occupation, and made the remarkable transition from soldiers to wartime rebels, they were largely designated as auxiliary forces and not granted full status as a formal military force.
There was an inherent challenge in the recognition process. The Squadron, for instance, faced difficulties in being officially recognized as a unit due to the perception that its members treated their involvement as a part-time commitment, and there might have been insufficient data available to substantiate their claims. The commanding general’s office even issued a justification statement, citing these reasons for the Squadron’s lack of formal recognition. This process exemplified the complex and sometimes arbitrary nature of post-war recognition, where the dedication and contributions of these brave individuals were not always given the acknowledgment they deserved.
On February 5, 1947, Captain Manalansan received a comprehensive letter from the commanding general’s office, detailing the specific grounds for his Squadron’s exclusion from consideration for recognition within the Philippine Army. This same date marked the receipt of a letter in which the commanding general’s office elaborated extensively on why Captain Manalansan’s Squadron was not deemed eligible for recognition as an integral component of the Philippine Army. The provided justifications include:
a. The service history lacked substantial validation through acceptable evidence.
b. The unit’s preparedness and condition were deemed unsatisfactory when confronted by the enemy.
c. The unit’s actions did not exert a substantial influence on the eventual triumph over the adversary.
d. The establishment of a distinct and organized unit was not evident.
e. Crucial records containing names, ranks, dates of enrollment or joining, promotions, and other essential particulars were inadequately maintained and updated.
f. The number of commissioned and noncommissioned officers significantly exceeded the prescribed proportions specified by the tables of organization employed by the Philippine Army prior to the Philippine-American War or by the U.S. Army.
g. The unit’s claimed operational domain and strength appeared disproportionately extensive compared to the region’s topography, the accessibility of communication facilities, and the extent of Japanese anti-resistance activities during the pertinent period.
h. The unit’s operational engagement and organizational continuity were deemed insufficient and unsatisfactory.
Due to these stated factors, the Squadron retains its unofficial status, notwithstanding its substantial contributions and direct oversight by Lieutenant Edwin Ramsey in executing military duties. The Squadron’s aspiration for formal recognition garnered resounding backing from its fellow members within the Filipino guerilla army. Notable among these supporters were Colonel Jose B. Lingad and Lieutenant Colonel Ceferino Regala, both of whom provided sworn affidavits attesting to the pivotal role played by Squadron 74. These affidavits were presented as part of their plea to seek a reconsideration of the unit’s recognition status. It is noteworthy that Colonel Ceferino Regala had previously held the command of the 1st regiment within the Bataan Military District, a position acknowledged by ECLGA.
Left: Affidavit letter of former Lieutenant Colonel Ceferino Regala, 1947.
Above: Affidavit Letter of Col. Jose B. Lingad, 1947
Despite their significant contributions to the war effort, Squadron 74’s recognition was limited to the eventual triumph and their personal satisfaction of having participated and contributed to the cause. This modest acknowledgment couldn’t obscure the fact that they were misled. In the bleakest periods of the conflict, when they believed their invaluable efforts were pivotal in overcoming the enemy or that their support was vital in achieving the war’s conclusion—during a time when they were hailed as heroes and patriots—they were promised a multitude of rewards. However, this seemingly generous recognition pales in comparison to the reality that they were deceived. Dedicated and loyal citizens like Captain Manalansan and his unit chose to resist the enemy without expectations of compensation. Yet now they seek the substantial rights granted to other guerilla troops. Unfortunately, the process of presenting their cases encountered stagnation. While some were bestowed rewards, others, including Squadron 74, were denied equitable compensation and the advantageous privileges extended to their peers following their service. This includes privileges such as naturalization, which would offer enhanced opportunities in the United States.
The process of addressing their grievances lacked creativity and imagination. While some received the recognition they deserved, Squadron 74 and others faced the disheartening reality of being denied the fair compensation and rights that would acknowledge their considerable sacrifices and contributions.
Furthermore, there exist other guerilla forces whose valiant stand remains unacknowledged, etching an epic legacy that will endure in the hearts of those who champion freedom and value liberty. This relentless struggle for recognition has persisted in history since the conclusion of World War II, persisting despite the exhaustive deployment of all accessible resources to secure rightful acknowledgment.
This battle for recognition has yielded inadequate results. The faces of these dedicated individuals remain unseen, often relegated to the category of mere war rebels rather than receiving the rightful recognition they deserve.
Works cited:
Ramsey, E.P. and Rivele, S.J. (1990) Lieutenant Ramsey’s War. 1st Ed. Knightsbridge Publishing Company
Jose, Ricardo T and Ikehata Setsuho. The Philippines Under Japan: Occupation Policy and Reaction. (1999). University of Hawaii Press.
Philippine Veterans Affair Office. 308-84 General Service Troops, ECLGA. National Archives Catalog. https://catalog.archives.gov/id/1431889
Philippine Veterans Affair Office. 308-55 6th Regt, PMD, ECLGA. . National Archives Catalog. https://catalog.archives.gov/id/1431857
Philippine Veterans Affair Office. 308-52 3rd Regt, PMD, ECLGA. National Archives Catalog. https://catalog.archives.gov/id/1431854
Guise, Kim. (2020) New Citizen Soldiers: Naturalization During World War II. National WWII Museum New Orleans. https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/new-citizen-soldiers-naturalization