By Ericson Dublas
Shrine Curator II, Museo ni Mariano Ponce
“Just as soon the comet shines in all its splendor,
the era of the happy emancipation of Philippines will be born.”
– Felipe Salvador, Leader of Santa Iglesia
Philippines Constabulary Records
August 1910 (vol 2, pp. 403; MHC)
As we celebrate our nation’s 125th anniversary of independence, let us reflect upon the remarkable events of 1910 when a palpable sense of “imminent independence” permeated our land. Notably, we must remember Felipe “Apo Ipe” Salvador, an esteemed figure who led the quasi-religious movement of Santa Iglesia from 1892 to 1912 in Central Luzon. It was during this period that Salvador prophetically foretold the impending arrival of our cherished independence.
Felipe Salvador, affectionately known as “Apo Ipe” among the Tagalogs and “Apung Ipe” by the Kapampangans, was born into a prominent cacique family in Baliwag, Bulacan on 26 May 1870. Remarkably, he ascended to the position of cabeza de barangay in Baliwag where he demonstrated his deep empathy for the townsfolk. In a display of extraordinary courage, Salvador fearlessly confronted a high-ranking guardia civil and successfully convinced the patio vendors to cease their payments to a certain Padre Prada, the parish priest of San Agustin de Baliwag during the 1890s. This audacious act embarrassed the parish priest, leading to Salvador’s exile in Iligan, Mindanao as a form of punishment.
Following the threat to his life, Salvador made a daring escape to the hinterlands of Bulacan and Pampanga provinces where he found refuge and joined the esteemed Katipunan society in Central Luzon. With unwavering dedication, he courageously fought alongside the Katipunan forces in numerous encounters throughout the region until the historic pact of Biak-na-Bato was signed in 1897. Remarkably, Salvador persisted in his independent guerilla warfare endeavors even after the truce between Spanish authorities and Filipino revolutionaries was established. Recognizing his unwavering commitment, President Emilio Aguinaldo appointed him as a colonel in 1899, and according to Artemio Ricarte’s memoirs, Salvador even rose to the esteemed rank of major general in battles against the American forces.
In addition to his involvement with the Katipunan, Felipe Salvador played a significant role in the popular religious-peasant group known as El Confradia Social de Gabinista or Gabinista (1887-89). Gabinista was initially founded by Gavino Cortez in Apalit, Pampanga in 1887. However, after Cortez was banished and executed in 1894, Salvador reorganized the group and renamed it Santa Iglesia. With the onset of the Philippine revolution in Bulacan and Pampanga in 1896, this religious entity led by Salvador underwent a transformation, evolving into a quasi-religious organization that garnered support from numerous peasant communities in Pampanga, Nueva Ecija, and Bulacan. Consequently, Apo Ipe and the Santa Iglesia gained notoriety during the American period as the most notorious bandit in the Central Luzon region, maintaining their status until Salvador’s eventual capture in 1910.
Despite enjoying favor from leaders of the first republic due to his extensive armed following, which surpassed that of any battalion within the revolutionary forces, Felipe Salvador and the Santa Iglesia encountered injustices inflicted upon them by the Kapampangan elites. To illustrate, Salvador was assigned to a military post in Malolos, Bulacan, where his loyal followers were scarce and in stark contrast to the concentrated presence they held in the border towns of Pampanga-Bulacan-Nueva Ecija. In response to the grievances voiced by his followers, Salvador personally delivered a letter of appeal to President Aguinaldo in Cavite, detailing the injustices and brutalities suffered by the members of Santa Iglesia at the hands of Pampanga’s military leaders and elite class.
In 1902, Felipe “Apo Ipe” Salvador was convicted of sedition. However, during his transfer to Bilibid prison in Manila, he managed to escape and seek refuge in his former headquarters in Mt. Arayat also known as the Sinukuan. Salvador claimed to have reached the mountain’s summit, where his spirit purportedly journeyed to the heavens and engaged in conversation with God, prophesying the impending arrival of independence. He further promised his followers that once his independent government was established, they would be rewarded with a lavish abundance of gold, jewels, and the redistribution of land and other properties as a testament to their unwavering faith and willingness to sacrifice.
Following his successful escape, Salvador and the Santa Iglesia emerged as the sole threat to the peace and order of the region, drawing the attention of American authorities. Salvador’s prophecy of independence in 1902 resonated deeply with the peasantry of Central Luzon who readily responded to his call. Constabulary reports from 1903 to 1906 highlighted the steadfast grip of the religious group over the rural populace in Bulacan, Pampanga, Nueva Ecija, Tarlac, and certain parts of Pangasinan. The raiders, comprising diverse linguistic peasant groups, demonstrated that there were no barriers to the movement’s rapid expansion during this period.
Not only did the influence of Santa Iglesia extend to Central Luzon, but it also had members and affiliated quasi-religious groups in Manila and the Southern Tagalog regions. Among them were the Colorums, Sagrada Familia brotherhoods, and even some Katipunan veterans. Furthermore, the Pangasinan-based Guardia de Honor movement recognized Felipe Salvador’s supreme authority in 1905. These peasant-based movements set aside their sectarian interests and rallied behind Salvador’s call for a renewed struggle for independence.
This renewed sense of aspiration and unwavering determination led to active religious and military operations by Santa Iglesia in rural centers of the region. Notable incidents included the attacks in Mabalacat, Pampanga in 1903, the sacking of the Malolos capitol grounds, and a fierce battle in Hagonoy in 1906, which resulted in the death of General Manuel “Capitan Tui” Garcia, Felipe Salvador’s trusted right-hand man, along with twenty others. The tragic loss of his most loyal aide in 1906 somewhat diminished the armed operations of Santa Iglesia until 1910. From then on, Apo Ipe roamed the remote areas near the Pampanga-Bulacan borders, specifically along the Pampanga River. Numerous attempts were made to negotiate his surrender.
From 1907 to 1909, there is a notable absence of mentions and reports about Santa Iglesia in Philippine Constabulary records. Efforts to track Felipe Salvador’s whereabouts during these years proved unsuccessful as he was protected by the rural communities that had supported him from 1902 to 1910. While official records from the Philippine Constabulary do not provide information during this period, valuable insights can be gained from Felipe Salvador’s own account, recorded during his detention in Bilibid prison prior to his execution in 1912. In his narrative, only three events can be verified using Philippine Constabulary sources: his escape in 1902 and return to Mt. Arayat; the notable entry into Arayat plaza in 1910, where his followers entered the rural center of Arayat, knelt, and prayed the rosary before the townspeople; and his subsequent capture later that same year.
On 17 April 1910, after years of roaming the vicinity of Mt. Arayat and the edges of Candaba swamp, Salvador decided to put his remaining loyal followers to the test. He wanted to determine the authenticity of their faith and dedication. Salvador proposed that they enter the town center of Arayat and publicly recite the rosary in front of the Santa Catalina parish. Eagerly accepting this ultimate test, his companions were willing to demonstrate to the townspeople of Arayat that the Santa Iglesia was not a malevolent force. Without carrying any weapons, they embarked on their journey, passing through several barrios. Upon reaching the church, they all knelt and prayed three mysteries of the rosary before rising and departing from the town center, leaving the onlookers in awe.
During their return journey to Mt. Arayat, Felipe Salvador and his followers took a rest at Sapang Batasan near a river. It was at this moment that constabulary forces from Santa Ana, Pampanga caught up with them and unleashed a barrage of bullets. Caught off guard by the sudden gunfire, the members of Santa Iglesia fled the area. Fortunately, Salvador managed to survive the attack and sought refuge in the remote and swampy areas, successfully evading his pursuers. The constabulary reported a modified version of Santa Iglesia’s entry into Arayat.
While Salvador hid and sought refuge in the vicinity of Candaba swamp and the foothills of Arayat, a nationwide wave of pro-independence sentiments began to surge, particularly in 1910. The Nacionalista party opposed the proposition of the Payne bill in 1909 which advocated for free trade between the USA and the Philippines. They feared that this would disrupt the existing Philippine economic system as they did not want American trusts and monopolies to dominate the country’s economy. This disagreement further strained the relationship between the Philippine Commission and the Nacionalista majority in the Philippine National Assembly. After a few months, adjustments were ratified, and the bill became part of the Payne-Aldrich Act of 1909. This law allowed American goods to enter the Philippines without tariff taxes and in unlimited quantities.
Indeed, Filipino politicians did not outright oppose the entry of American investors, but rather sought equal and stable political control over their country. This sentiment was reflected in the victory of the Nacionalista party in the Assembly election of 1909, which signified the Filipinos’ pro-independence stance. As early as 1910, Filipino politicians fostered an atmosphere of imminent independence, with the word “independence” permeating not only in news and speeches, but also everyday conversations among the Filipino populace. During this time, there was a notable trend of excessively popularizing the idea of immediate national independence, particularly among the masses.
In 1910, there were clear indications of heightened unrest. Reports from the constabulary in January of that year revealed that Colorum, Sagrada Familia, and Santa Iglesia, all distinct millenarian peasant-based organizations spanning from Central to South Luzon, were providing unusually substantial support for Salvador’s potential revolutionary cause in Central Luzon. These organizations recognized Felipe Salvador as their supreme leader, addressing him as the “King of the Philippines.”
In the face of widespread reports about an imminent war for independence, the Constabulary perceived a potential uprising on the horizon. Adding to the gravity of the situation, Felipe Salvador’s presence in the towns of Bulacan, Pampanga, Nueva Ecija, and Tarlac intensified discussions of an upcoming war that he would lead alongside his religious peasant-based followers. Rumors from American government agents indicated a noticeable movement of people from Central and Southern Luzon towards Mt. Arayat. Additionally, reports mentioned the arrest of individuals en route to Mt. Arayat, where hundreds of Santa Iglesia members and non-members gathered for prayer on the slopes. It was anticipated that Apo Ipe would arrive daily, bringing weapons and advocating for Philippine independence. It’s worth noting that historically, the slopes of Mt. Arayat held significance as a Katipunan stronghold in Central Luzon in 1896.
To better understand the context of these noteworthy events in early 1910, it’s important to consider the movements and activities of people associated with Salvador, Santa Iglesia, and the pro-independence sentiments within the observance of Holy Week, which took place from 20-27 March 1910. It is crucial to remember that Santa Iglesia drew inspiration from the dogmas and religious rites of the Catholic Church. As a result, it was customary for both Roman Catholics and localized Catholics to embark on holy pilgrimages to various sites.
The first quarter of 1910 proved to be a critical period for the Americans, as the idea of pro-independence gained traction among both the elite and the majority of the local population. Adding to the existing unrest, news spread about the upcoming appearance of Halley’s comet on 9 April 1910. This celestial event, which occurs approximately every 75-79 years, further heightened excitement and expectations among the masses. For some, the comet’s appearance symbolized the possibility of a war that could serve as a prelude to national independence.
In light of these significant events in early 1910, it became evident to everyone that only Felipe “Apo Ipe” Salvador possessed the leadership qualities necessary to orchestrate a mass revolution against the Americans. Radical ilustrados such as Artemio Ricarte, Mariano Ponce, and other Nacionalista and independista politicians recognized Salvador as the sole figure capable of leading an armed uprising.
Continuing Salvador’s campaign in Central Luzon, constabulary reports indicated that he led a sizable group of men through the Zambales mountains, anticipating the arrival of a shipment of arms along the western coast of Luzon. Unfortunately, they returned empty-handed, as the provision of firearms fell through. This setback may have contributed to the dispersion of some groups who had taken refuge in Mt. Arayat. Additionally, regular surveillance by American agents led to further dispersal from the foothills. Salvador, however, abandoned his stronghold in Arayat and continued to hide in the vicinity of Floridablanca and San Luis, Pampanga, where he remained a focal point of the uprising movement for potential national independence.
After eluding capture for nearly a decade from 1902 to 1910, Salvador was finally apprehended by the constabulary on 24 July 1910 in a remote area of the Candaba Swamp in San Luis, Pampanga. He was arrested at nightfall while praying with others when the police suddenly arrived and apprehended Salvador, taking him to the office of Pampanga Governor Macario Arnedo. The following day, he was transferred to Bilibid prison in Manila via train. It is likely that Salvador’s capture was orchestrated by an individual named Eusebio Clarin, who was believed to be a detractor and possibly an agent of Governor Arnedo. Clarin, who was related to or potentially the brother of Damaso, Salvador’s closest companion, played a role in the events leading to Salvador’s arrest.
Finally, after expending significant resources in tracking and capturing Apo Ipe, the Americans, along with local politicians, breathed a sigh of relief upon Salvador’s capture. However, according to Constabulary reports, the news of Salvador’s arrest evoked shock, lamentation, and grief among his Santa Iglesia followers, not only in Central Luzon but also in Manila and Southern Luzon. Salvador’s peasant supporters held onto the hope that he would miraculously escape once again, as he had done in 1902, and proclaim the long-awaited national independence. Even some nationalist politicians and elites were saddened by his capture as they had hoped to enlist his aid in the struggle for independence.
Salvador was once again convicted, this time on charges of sedition, and was sentenced to be hanged on 15 April 1902. He was prosecuted by fiscal Epifanio de los Santos and received the death sentence from Judge Francisco Santa Maria. While imprisoned in Bilibid, Salvador penned an account of his adventures, chronicling his escape in 1902 up until his return to Arayat town center in 1910.
On the day of his execution, the American authorities restricted Salvador’s family from witnessing his final hours. Mariano Ponce, a fellow Bulakenyo and a member of the Philippine Assembly at the time, used his influence and pleaded with the chief warden to allow Salvador’s male relatives and supporters to witness the execution and later retrieve and bury his remains.
In conclusion, the series of events that unfolded in the 1900s reflected both the suppressed nationalism among the masses and the pro-American leanings of the elites. Despite lacking unity, Filipinos during this period demonstrated a conscious commitment to nation-building in the face of a dominant imperialist nation. Apo Ipe, in his noble aspirations, represented the marginalized sector and sought to lead a struggle rooted in localized faith and the hope for true independence. This struggle encompassed not only resistance against the colonizers but also against oppressive elements within society.
Felipe Salvador’s heroism sheds light on the dichotomy of nationalism that existed between the elites and the masses during the revolutionary years. As highlighted by Dr. Reynaldo Ileto in his work “Pasyon and Revolution,” elite revolutionaries envisioned nationalism as the unity of the “better class,” representing the “inarticulate masses.” In contrast, Salvador believed that nationalism should bring people together regardless of their previous relations to elites or patrons, emphasizing a broader sense of collective identity.
These notions of nationalism persisted throughout the entirety of the Philippine struggle for independence. While the elite-led armed resistance against the Americans waned in 1901, quasi-religious and peasant-based groups like Santa Iglesia and others continued to take up arms and garnered significant support among the rural population, despite being branded as bandoleros or bandits by the Americans and their collaborators. The participation of peasants in the revolution is often overlooked as the elite leaders viewed them as mere instruments for the nation’s emancipation. However, Felipe Salvador and Santa Iglesia paved the way and demonstrated that they were not just inarticulate masses. They had the capability to fight and stand up for the sovereignty of the nation in times of crisis. It became evident that the Filipino elites in the 1900s recognized the potential for a conflict against the Americans, with the peasant movements at the forefront. They held hope for the success of these movements, anticipating the day when they could unite as a coalition to fight for the freedom of the nation.
Today, many Filipinos primarily remember and celebrate the momentous declaration of independence in Kawit, Cavite in 1898, which occurred exactly one hundred and twenty-five years ago. However, it is crucial not to forget the efforts of our predecessors who continued the struggle, keeping the flame of aspirations and freedom alive. Therefore, it is important to commemorate and honor underrated heroes such as Felipe “Apo Ipe” Salvador, the leader of Santa Iglesia, and numerous other Filipino freedom fighters who made significant contributions to the cause of independence.
SOURCES
____________. Annual report of the Directory of Lands. Manila. 1903.
____________. Biography of Salvador in El Noticiero (date not specified), quoted length in The Manila Times, 27 Jan. 1900
____________. Filipinos fight against Filipinos,” The Manila Times, 20 May 1900
____________. Kasaysayan ng mga ipinagdadamdam at karaingan ng comandante Feilipe Salvador sa mahinahong pasia ng Kag. Na Presidente G.R., Account of the resentments and complains of Major Felipe Salvador submitted to the just and gentle decision of the Honorable President of the Republic, 14 January 1899, PIR SD 1284.1, R. 7.
____________. La Political de Espana en Filipinas, 8, 183 (15 April 1898)
____________. Philippine Constabulary Records, H.H. Bandholtz
____________. Philippines. Bureau of Health. Manila, 1903.
Agoncillo, Teodoro A. History of the Filipino people Edition: 8th ed., Garotech Publishing, Quezon City, 1990.
Chanco, Gerardo. Bahág-harì: babasahing tagalog. Maynila. 1912
Constantino, Renato. The Philippines: A Past Revisited, Quezon City, 1975.
Larkin, John, The Pampangans: Colonial Society in a Philippine Province. 1972.
Milagros Camayon Guerrero. Luzon at War: Contradictions in Philippine Society, 1898–1902 (with an introduction by Vicente L. Rafael). 1977.
Reynaldo Clemeña Ileto. Pasyon and Revolution: Popular Movements in the Philippines, 1840-1910. Ateneo de Manila University. 1997
Santos, Jose P. Ang Tatlong Napabandog na Tulisan sa Pilipinas. Si Tangkad – Si Apong Ipe – Bayani o Tulisan si Macario sakay. 1936.